Factors Contributing to the Weakness of the Abbasid State during the Second Abbasid Era
The Second Abbasid Era commenced under the caliphate of Al-Mutawakkil Alallah in 232 AH and concluded with the emergence of a police state in 334 AH, during the reign of Al-Mustakfi. This period was marked by a resurgence in scientific activity, a flourishing of translation efforts, and extensive writing across various fields.
However, it was also characterized by a weakened caliphate and a decline in its prestige, with separatist movements gaining momentum. The Turkish guards solidified their control over governance to such an extent that this era was often referred to as the “Turkish Guard Era.” The period was also notable for the short reigns of caliphs who lacked real power; their authority became largely nominal, limited to their names appearing on coins and receiving prayers during Friday prayers. Below are key factors contributing to the decline of the Abbasid state during this era:
Political Structure and Succession Practices
Traditionally, caliphs had appointed successors, which led to disputes and conflicts among the descendants of caliphs and those in power. Opponents of the state exploited these divisions to weaken unity and foster dissent. Some caliphs, often inexperienced and unqualified, assumed control, failing to navigate political intricacies and manage state affairs effectively, further contributing to the empire’s decline.
Fragmentation of the Islamic State
During the Abbasid rule, three caliphates emerged concurrently, undermining Islamic unity:
- The Umayyad Caliphate in Al-Andalus.
- The Abbasid Caliphate in Iraq.
- The Fatimid State in North Africa.
Expansion of the Islamic Territory
The Islamic empire expanded significantly, stretching from China in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. This vast territory became increasingly difficult to manage. The Abbasid caliphs often indulged in luxury and extravagance, which compromised state stability. The distance between the capital and various regions further hindered effective governance, leading some provinces, such as the Idrisids, to separate.
Incorporation of New Entities into the Islamic State
The entrance of new powers, particularly the Persians and Turks, weakened the Abbasid leadership and diminished their authority. The integration of these entities brought in diverse cultures, religions, and sects, further exacerbating the Abbasid state’s vulnerabilities.
Separation of Several Provinces
In some Islamic provinces, governors declared their independence from the Abbasid caliphate, largely due to the caliphs’ preoccupation with indulgence and internal strife, such as the independence of the Buwayhids in Isfahan and Khurasan, the Hamdanids in Diyarbakr and Mosul, as well as in Egypt and Rabi’a, and the Ikhshidids in Egypt and the Levant.
Economic Decline
The economic conditions worsened towards the end of the Abbasid caliphate due to the excessive opulence and extravagance of the ruling class. Financial resources dwindled, and income diminished as provinces distanced themselves from the central authority, leading to uprisings and widespread chaos throughout the territories.
Cultural Focus on Entertainment over Jihad
The caliphs’ deep involvement in luxury and lavish lifestyles overshadowed the once-committed efforts towards jihad.
Rise of Nationalism (Shu’ubiyya)
Shu’ubiyya emerged as a nationalist movement that favored non-Arabs over Arabs, contributing to social divisions.
Turkish Dominance over Governance
Initially, Abbasid caliphs relied on Turkish support to manage military affairs; however, this reliance evolved into total dependence on Turkish soldiers, effectively sidelining Arab fighters. Consequently, Abbasid rulers sought to appease Turkish leaders, who then had significant influence over the appointment of ministers and participated in critical decision-making processes.
Emergence of the Qarmatians
The heretical Qarmatians wreaked havoc during this period, notably seizing the Black Stone in 317 AH and holding it in Al-Hajar (Bahrain) for twenty years. The Black Stone returned to its original location in 339 AH under Caliph Al-Mu’tadi. Historical records indicate that an army of approximately 40,000 men under Caliph Al-Muqtadir, who assumed power in 295 AH, fled from a Qarmatian force consisting of just 1,700 fighters.
Appointment of Non-Arabs to Leadership Positions
Some Abbasid caliphs appointed Turkish and Persian leaders to high-ranking positions within the government. This shift in power dynamics enabled the Turks to exercise authority over appointments and dismissals, paving the way for disintegration and decline within the Abbasid state.